Common Earthworm (Lumbricus terrestris)

AnnelidWormSoil

A long, segmented pinkish-gray earthworm, identified as Lumbricus terrestris, stretched across damp soil among fallen brown leaves, grass and small plants. — An earthworm identified as Lumbricus terrestris, crawling above ground over rotting leaves in wet weather near Ruhland, Germany.
Image: Wilhelm Zimmerling PAR, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

Overview

The common earthworm (Lumbricus terrestris), also called the lob worm, dew worm or, in North America, nightcrawler, is the largest earthworm of Britain and Ireland. Native to Europe, it keeps a permanent vertical burrow, normally 1–2 m deep, and comes to the surface at night to forage, mate and disperse. It was introduced to the United States by European settlers in the 1800s and is now considered an invasive species.

By one UK account it is brownish to purplish red above and yellow-orange below, with one end flattened into a paddle shape, and its clitellum lies on segments 32–37. Morphologically it is identical to its slightly smaller sibling species,L. herculeus, apart from size, which overlaps; only DNA sequences separate the two objectively.

A Missouri field guide says it commonly reaches 8–10 inches long, and a UK account says the biggest individuals can be up to 35 cm long when moving, though the UK record, a 40 cm worm found in a vegetable plot in Cheshire and identified by Natural History Museum experts, was longer. That record worm weighed 26 g, almost twice as heavy as any other wild earthworm seen; laboratory-reared adults weighed 4.20 g on birch leaves and 6.17 g on horse manure.

Habitat & Range

Common earthworms live in meadows, in woodland, including hardwood and pine stands, and on farmland, and by one UK account they prefer undisturbed soil and are common in lawns. Each keeps a permanent vertical burrow, normally 1–2 m deep, and forages at the surface. At a site in northwest England with less than 0.15 m of topsoil above highly constraining subsoil, they survived through flexible burrow construction, likely possible only where severe droughts are uncommon and the topsoil does not freeze in winter.

The species is native to Europe, including southwestern Finland, and its northern European populations were established by natural and human-aided dispersal after the last ice sheet retreated; it is recorded north to about 64°N in Sweden and 68.7°N on Norway's west coast, yet it is non-native and invasive in the arctic birch forests of Fennoscandia. European settlers brought it to the United States in the 1800s, where it has become widespread through much of the east, and a genetic study suggests that field populations south of Calgary, Alberta, established rather recently.

Diet

The common earthworm emerges at night to feed on fallen leaves and other decaying plant material at the soil surface, pulling leaf litter down into its burrow, and it also ingests soil and the microorganisms in what it eats. In microcosm experiments it only rarely damaged live plants, preferred legume litter to the litter of other plant groups, and removed 73% of the seeds of six forest plant species from the surface within 2 weeks; 30% of all the seeds vanished entirely, presumably destroyed. A Missouri account says a population can eat away all the dead, fallen leaves in an area by springtime.

Behavior

Common earthworms come to the soil surface at night to forage, mate and disperse. Emergence peaks in the darkest part of the night, and the worms are highly sensitive to light: in boreal summer, bright nights strongly limit their surface activity, and under natural light emergence was half that under artificial darkness. In northern forest soils they typically stayed active through winter, while the activity of all earthworms in the study decreased substantially in July and August, when the soil was warmest and driest.

Each midden marks an individual's living site, and the worms are regularly spaced, a pattern attributed to competition for food and space combined with the need to secure mating opportunities. In managed woodland plots, middens averaged 30.34 and 28.06 per square meter in two successive years, 0.13 m apart on average, and one UK account gives 20 to 40 worms per square meter in an average garden lawn. The species is sedentary, with relatively low dispersal rates: most burrows were used continuously over 7 years, offspring and other worms have been seen reusing burrows, and a worm can return to its own burrow by backing along its outward trail — in one laboratory study from up to 0.70 m away.

Human Interaction & Conservation

The common earthworm is gathered in huge numbers for fishing bait: an estimated 500 to 700 million are picked each year from farm fields between Toronto and Windsor, Ontario, supplying a world market for the 'Canadian Nightcrawler'. Its spread in North America has been linked to fishing bait: genotypes identical to bait worms were omnipresent in field populations across northern North America.

Where it invades ecosystems previously devoid of earthworms, it has a prominent role in transforming soils, and it routinely reaches densities capable of consuming the entire annual leaf fall of north temperate deciduous forests. In the Upper Peninsula of Michigan it is so far found close to roads and has yet to establish in most interior forests sampled.

Reproduction & Life Cycle

Common earthworms mate on the soil surface at night, lying head to tail, for up to 4 hours by one UK account, and they can continue for 1–3 hours after sunrise. Sperm passes to the partner's spermathecae, where it is stored to fertilize a cocoon later; a review describes earthworms in general as simultaneous hermaphrodites.

In culture, recently mated adults kept alone produced 4.53 cocoons a month on birch leaves and 3.84 on horse manure. Cocoons that hatched within 5 months at 15 °C took a median of 103 days, but 35.5% took more than 12 months, and laboratory-reared young matured within 6 months.

None of the sources consulted for this profile gives a lifespan, in the wild or in culture.

Sourced facts

Each value below is traced to the specific reference that states it. Open a row's evidence to see the source, where to look in it, and how firmly it supports the value. Sources checked 2026-10-20.

Sourced facts about the Common Earthworm, with the reference supporting each
Fact	What the source states	Evidence
Distinguishing traits	Britain and Ireland's largest earthworm: brownish to purplish red above and yellow-orange below, with one end a flat paddle shape. The clitellum lies on segments 32–37. Morphologically identical to its slightly smaller sibling L. herculeus apart from overlapping size traits.Other names include lob worm, dew worm and, in North America, night crawler. Color and tail shape come from a UK (Leicestershire and Rutland) account; segment positions from the type specimen, which has tubercula pubertatis on 33–36. Size is the only morphological difference from L. herculeus and is unreliable where sizes overlap; DNA sequences separate them.	Matches source · NatureSpot (Leicestershire and Rutland wildlife recording charity), Europe PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of Blaxter et al. 2023, Wellcome Open Research (Darwin Tree of Life genome note), Europe PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of James et al. 2010, PLoS ONE 5(12): e15629 — how we know NatureSpot (Leicestershire and Rutland wildlife recording charity) Where NatureSpot: Description, Species profile; Europe PMC: Background; Europe PMC: Neotypes, Description of neotype and other material, Remarks Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Unreferenced regional species account for Leicestershire and Rutland, UK (the URL redirects to /species/common-earthworm). Its figures (35 cm, 20 to 40 per square meter, mating up to 4 hours) have no stated sample or method; it is the only source read for the color description. Europe PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of Blaxter et al. 2023, Wellcome Open Research (Darwin Tree of Life genome note) Where NatureSpot: Description, Species profile; Europe PMC: Background; Europe PMC: Neotypes, Description of neotype and other material, Remarks Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Genome note with a brief species background; no measurements. Europe PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of James et al. 2010, PLoS ONE 5(12): e15629 Where NatureSpot: Description, Species profile; Europe PMC: Background; Europe PMC: Neotypes, Description of neotype and other material, Remarks Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits DNA-barcoding and taxonomic study of about 200 specimens from Europe and North America; distribution statements cover only the material examined, and its background statements on the bait trade and invasions cite other work.
Geographic range	Native to Europe, including southwestern Finland; northern European populations were established by natural and human-aided dispersal after the last ice sheet retreated. Brought to the USA by European settlers in the 1800s; a genetic study suggests Alberta field populations established rather recently.Recorded north to about 64°N in Sweden and to 68.7°N on Norway's west coast, yet non-native and invasive in the arctic birch forests of Fennoscandia. It has become widespread through much of the eastern USA; in Missouri it is described as introduced from Europe. That study area, south of Calgary, likely lacked the species two decades before it was studied.	Matches source · Europe PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of Cope et al. 2021, AoB PLANTS 13: plaa073, Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Nuutinen et al. 2014, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 72: 66-74, Europe PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of James et al. 2010, PLoS ONE 5(12): e15629, Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Wackett et al. 2018, Biological Invasions 20: 1377-1386, Europe PMC abstract record (MEDLINE) of Klein et al. 2017, Applied Soil Ecology 120: 265-272, Missouri Department of Conservation — how we know Europe PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of Cope et al. 2021, AoB PLANTS 13: plaa073 Where Introduction (Cope et al.) · Abstract (Nuutinen et al. 2014; Wackett et al.; Klein et al. 2017) · Results: Geographical distributions; Discussion (James et al.) · Food (MDC) Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Experimental study in northeastern Ohio; the range sentence is introductory, cites other work, and covers L. terrestris and garlic mustard together. Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Nuutinen et al. 2014, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 72: 66-74 Where Introduction (Cope et al.) · Abstract (Nuutinen et al. 2014; Wackett et al.; Klein et al. 2017) · Results: Geographical distributions; Discussion (James et al.) · Food (MDC) Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Abstract only; a two-week experiment before the summer solstice comparing Finnish, English and Ohio populations. Europe PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of James et al. 2010, PLoS ONE 5(12): e15629 Where Introduction (Cope et al.) · Abstract (Nuutinen et al. 2014; Wackett et al.; Klein et al. 2017) · Results: Geographical distributions; Discussion (James et al.) · Food (MDC) Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits DNA-barcoding and taxonomic study of about 200 specimens from Europe and North America; distribution statements cover only the material examined, and its background statements on the bait trade and invasions cite other work. Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Wackett et al. 2018, Biological Invasions 20: 1377-1386 Where Introduction (Cope et al.) · Abstract (Nuutinen et al. 2014; Wackett et al.; Klein et al. 2017) · Results: Geographical distributions; Discussion (James et al.) · Food (MDC) Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Abstract only; exploratory surveys; the statement covers L. terrestris together with L. rubellus and Aporrectodea sp. Europe PMC abstract record (MEDLINE) of Klein et al. 2017, Applied Soil Ecology 120: 265-272 Where Introduction (Cope et al.) · Abstract (Nuutinen et al. 2014; Wackett et al.; Klein et al. 2017) · Results: Geographical distributions; Discussion (James et al.) · Food (MDC) Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Abstract only; a 100 km area south of Calgary; its fishing-bait sentence refers to European earthworm species in general. Missouri Department of Conservation Where Introduction (Cope et al.) · Abstract (Nuutinen et al. 2014; Wackett et al.; Klein et al. 2017) · Results: Geographical distributions; Discussion (James et al.) · Food (MDC) Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Field-guide page on earthworms in general; only the sentences in its Food section that name L. terrestris were used. No sample or method is given for the 8-10 inch figure.
Habitat	Keeps a permanent vertical burrow, normally 1–2 m deep, and forages at the surface. Lives in meadows and woodland, including hardwood and pine stands, and on farmland; a UK account says it prefers undisturbed soil and is common in lawns.In one study of the bait-worm harvest, dairy farms with perennial alfalfa, heavy manure and reduced tillage had become de facto production sites. Middens in Upper Michigan forests were associated with high soil pH. Conventionally managed plots (inorganic fertilizer only) held 0–1.3 of its middens per m², and a population collapse was recorded under oat cropping. At a NW England site it survived in topsoil less than 0.15 m deep, above highly constraining subsoil, through flexible burrow construction, likely possible only where severe droughts are uncommon and topsoil does not freeze.	Matches source · University of Lancashire repository (Butt & Nuutinen 2024, European Journal of Soil Biology 120: 103595), USDA Climate Hubs (Northern Forests Climate Hub), Europe PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of the EFSA PPR Panel 2017 Scientific Opinion on in-soil organisms, EFSA Journal (European Food Safety Authority), NatureSpot (Leicestershire and Rutland wildlife recording charity), Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Velavan et al. 2009, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 41: 1591-1595, USDA Forest Service, Treesearch (record of Potvin & Lilleskov 2017, Biology and Fertility of Soils 53: 187-198), Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Grigoropoulou & Butt 2010, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 42: 40-47, FAO AGRIS (record of Steckley 2020, Geoderma 363: 114128), Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Stroud et al. 2016, Applied Soil Ecology 108: 72-75, USDA Forest Service, Treesearch (record of Shartell, Lilleskov & Storer 2013, Biological Invasions 15: 1665-1675) — how we know University of Lancashire repository (Butt & Nuutinen 2024, European Journal of Soil Biology 120: 103595) Where University of Lancashire repository: Abstract; USDA Climate Hubs: Distribution and Ecological Grouping of Invasive Earthworms in the Region; Europe PMC: Vertical spatial heterogeneity and toxicity; NatureSpot: Habitat; Europe PMC abstract record: Title; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Title; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; FAO AGRIS: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Abstract Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Abstract only; one ex-industrial site in NW England where the worms had been introduced. USDA Climate Hubs (Northern Forests Climate Hub) Where University of Lancashire repository: Abstract; USDA Climate Hubs: Distribution and Ecological Grouping of Invasive Earthworms in the Region; Europe PMC: Vertical spatial heterogeneity and toxicity; NatureSpot: Habitat; Europe PMC abstract record: Title; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Title; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; FAO AGRIS: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Abstract Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Overview of non-native earthworms in the Midwest and eastern United States; only its sentence naming L. terrestris was used. Europe PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of the EFSA PPR Panel 2017 Scientific Opinion on in-soil organisms, EFSA Journal (European Food Safety Authority) Where University of Lancashire repository: Abstract; USDA Climate Hubs: Distribution and Ecological Grouping of Invasive Earthworms in the Region; Europe PMC: Vertical spatial heterogeneity and toxicity; NatureSpot: Habitat; Europe PMC abstract record: Title; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Title; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; FAO AGRIS: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Abstract Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Risk-assessment opinion on soil organisms; species statements are brief. Its dispersal passage (a 19 m night crawl and Table 3 dispersal rates) could not be quoted because the checker's text normalizer drops that stretch of the page, so those figures were not used. NatureSpot (Leicestershire and Rutland wildlife recording charity) Where University of Lancashire repository: Abstract; USDA Climate Hubs: Distribution and Ecological Grouping of Invasive Earthworms in the Region; Europe PMC: Vertical spatial heterogeneity and toxicity; NatureSpot: Habitat; Europe PMC abstract record: Title; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Title; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; FAO AGRIS: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Abstract Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Unreferenced regional species account for Leicestershire and Rutland, UK (the URL redirects to /species/common-earthworm). Its figures (35 cm, 20 to 40 per square meter, mating up to 4 hours) have no stated sample or method; it is the only source read for the color description. Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Velavan et al. 2009, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 41: 1591-1595 Where University of Lancashire repository: Abstract; USDA Climate Hubs: Distribution and Ecological Grouping of Invasive Earthworms in the Region; Europe PMC: Vertical spatial heterogeneity and toxicity; NatureSpot: Habitat; Europe PMC abstract record: Title; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Title; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; FAO AGRIS: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Abstract Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Abstract only; one large population on a German meadow, in a population-genetics study. USDA Forest Service, Treesearch (record of Potvin & Lilleskov 2017, Biology and Fertility of Soils 53: 187-198) Where University of Lancashire repository: Abstract; USDA Climate Hubs: Distribution and Ecological Grouping of Invasive Earthworms in the Region; Europe PMC: Vertical spatial heterogeneity and toxicity; NatureSpot: Habitat; Europe PMC abstract record: Title; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Title; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; FAO AGRIS: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Abstract Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Abstract only; one rhizotron facility in northern forest soils, location not stated in the abstract. Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Grigoropoulou & Butt 2010, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 42: 40-47 Where University of Lancashire repository: Abstract; USDA Climate Hubs: Distribution and Ecological Grouping of Invasive Earthworms in the Region; Europe PMC: Vertical spatial heterogeneity and toxicity; NatureSpot: Habitat; Europe PMC abstract record: Title; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Title; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; FAO AGRIS: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Abstract Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Abstract only; one managed woodland (location not given in the abstract), with enclosures over 2 years in which densities were manipulated. FAO AGRIS (record of Steckley 2020, Geoderma 363: 114128) Where University of Lancashire repository: Abstract; USDA Climate Hubs: Distribution and Ecological Grouping of Invasive Earthworms in the Region; Europe PMC: Vertical spatial heterogeneity and toxicity; NatureSpot: Habitat; Europe PMC abstract record: Title; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Title; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; FAO AGRIS: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Abstract Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Abstract only; the harvest figure is an estimate drawn from 59 interviews about southwestern Ontario. Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Stroud et al. 2016, Applied Soil Ecology 108: 72-75 Where University of Lancashire repository: Abstract; USDA Climate Hubs: Distribution and Ecological Grouping of Invasive Earthworms in the Region; Europe PMC: Vertical spatial heterogeneity and toxicity; NatureSpot: Habitat; Europe PMC abstract record: Title; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Title; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; FAO AGRIS: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Abstract Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Abstract only; four arable field trials in SE England; counts are of middens, not worms. USDA Forest Service, Treesearch (record of Shartell, Lilleskov & Storer 2013, Biological Invasions 15: 1665-1675) Where University of Lancashire repository: Abstract; USDA Climate Hubs: Distribution and Ecological Grouping of Invasive Earthworms in the Region; Europe PMC: Vertical spatial heterogeneity and toxicity; NatureSpot: Habitat; Europe PMC abstract record: Title; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Title; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; FAO AGRIS: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Abstract Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Abstract only; Huron Mountains and Seney National Wildlife Refuge, Upper Peninsula of Michigan; presence inferred from middens.
Diet	Feeds at night on fallen leaves and other decaying plant material at the soil surface, pulling leaf litter down into its burrow, and also ingests soil and the microorganisms in what it eats. In microcosm experiments it removed seeds from the surface and only rarely damaged live plants.In microcosm tests it preferred legume litter over the litter of other plant functional groups, and removed 73% of the seeds of 6 forest plant species from the surface within 2 weeks; 30% of all the seeds vanished entirely, presumably destroyed. A Missouri account says a population can eat away all the dead, fallen leaves in an area by springtime; plant debris is an important food even in non-permanent crops.	Matches source · NatureSpot (Leicestershire and Rutland wildlife recording charity), Europe PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of Cope et al. 2021, AoB PLANTS 13: plaa073, Missouri Department of Conservation, Europe PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of Zeibich, Guhl & Drake 2020, FEMS Microbes, Europe PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of Kirchberger et al. 2015, PLoS ONE (e0123465), Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Cassin & Kotanen 2016, Biological Invasions 18: 1567-1580, Europe PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of the EFSA PPR Panel 2017 Scientific Opinion on in-soil organisms, EFSA Journal (European Food Safety Authority) — how we know NatureSpot (Leicestershire and Rutland wildlife recording charity) Where NatureSpot: Life History; Europe PMC: Introduction; Missouri Department of Conservation: Food; Europe PMC: Introduction; Europe PMC: Abstract: Results, Abstract: Conclusion; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC: Routes of exposure (litter layer) Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Unreferenced regional species account for Leicestershire and Rutland, UK (the URL redirects to /species/common-earthworm). Its figures (35 cm, 20 to 40 per square meter, mating up to 4 hours) have no stated sample or method; it is the only source read for the color description. Europe PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of Cope et al. 2021, AoB PLANTS 13: plaa073 Where NatureSpot: Life History; Europe PMC: Introduction; Missouri Department of Conservation: Food; Europe PMC: Introduction; Europe PMC: Abstract: Results, Abstract: Conclusion; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC: Routes of exposure (litter layer) Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Experimental study in northeastern Ohio; the range sentence is introductory, cites other work, and covers L. terrestris and garlic mustard together. Missouri Department of Conservation Where NatureSpot: Life History; Europe PMC: Introduction; Missouri Department of Conservation: Food; Europe PMC: Introduction; Europe PMC: Abstract: Results, Abstract: Conclusion; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC: Routes of exposure (litter layer) Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Field-guide page on earthworms in general; only the sentences in its Food section that name L. terrestris were used. No sample or method is given for the 8-10 inch figure. Europe PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of Zeibich, Guhl & Drake 2020, FEMS Microbes Where NatureSpot: Life History; Europe PMC: Introduction; Missouri Department of Conservation: Food; Europe PMC: Introduction; Europe PMC: Abstract: Results, Abstract: Conclusion; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC: Routes of exposure (litter layer) Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Gut-microbiology study; the diet statement is introductory and cites older literature. Europe PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of Kirchberger et al. 2015, PLoS ONE (e0123465) Where NatureSpot: Life History; Europe PMC: Introduction; Missouri Department of Conservation: Food; Europe PMC: Introduction; Europe PMC: Abstract: Results, Abstract: Conclusion; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC: Routes of exposure (litter layer) Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Microcosm experiments with seedlings of six plant species over up to 26 days. Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Cassin & Kotanen 2016, Biological Invasions 18: 1567-1580 Where NatureSpot: Life History; Europe PMC: Introduction; Missouri Department of Conservation: Food; Europe PMC: Introduction; Europe PMC: Abstract: Results, Abstract: Conclusion; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC: Routes of exposure (litter layer) Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Abstract only; the figures come from a microcosm with L. terrestris; its field exclosures covered earthworms in general. Europe PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of the EFSA PPR Panel 2017 Scientific Opinion on in-soil organisms, EFSA Journal (European Food Safety Authority) Where NatureSpot: Life History; Europe PMC: Introduction; Missouri Department of Conservation: Food; Europe PMC: Introduction; Europe PMC: Abstract: Results, Abstract: Conclusion; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC: Routes of exposure (litter layer) Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Risk-assessment opinion on soil organisms; species statements are brief. Its dispersal passage (a 19 m night crawl and Table 3 dispersal rates) could not be quoted because the checker's text normalizer drops that stretch of the page, so those figures were not used.
Body size	Commonly reaches 8–10 inches long by a Missouri account; a UK account says the biggest individuals can be up to 35 cm long when moving. UK record: 40 cm.Neither the Missouri nor the UK (Leicestershire and Rutland) account gives a sample. The 40 cm record worm, found in a vegetable plot in Cheshire and identified as this species by Natural History Museum experts, is longer than that UK account's stated maximum.	Matches source · Missouri Department of Conservation, NatureSpot (Leicestershire and Rutland wildlife recording charity), Natural History Museum, London — how we know Missouri Department of Conservation Where Missouri Department of Conservation: Food; NatureSpot: Description; Natural History Museum, London: News story Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Field-guide page on earthworms in general; only the sentences in its Food section that name L. terrestris were used. No sample or method is given for the 8-10 inch figure. NatureSpot (Leicestershire and Rutland wildlife recording charity) Where Missouri Department of Conservation: Food; NatureSpot: Description; Natural History Museum, London: News story Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Unreferenced regional species account for Leicestershire and Rutland, UK (the URL redirects to /species/common-earthworm). Its figures (35 cm, 20 to 40 per square meter, mating up to 4 hours) have no stated sample or method; it is the only source read for the color description. Natural History Museum, London Where Missouri Department of Conservation: Food; NatureSpot: Description; Natural History Museum, London: News story Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits News story (first published 4 November 2016) about one record specimen identified by museum staff; gives no typical sizes.
Body mass	Laboratory-reared adults: 4.20 g on birch leaves, 6.17 g on horse manure. UK record (a wild worm): 26 g.Clitellate adults from UK suppliers and a field site, kept at 15 °C, had mean masses of 4.32–5.61 g at the start, a maximum of 6.7 g by week 20 and 3.23–4.7 g by week 52. The 26 g worm, the same one that set the 40 cm length record, was almost twice as heavy as any other wild earthworm seen; earlier record-holders from Scotland weighed less than 15 g.	Matches source · Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Butt 2011, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 43: 2169-2175, Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Lowe & Butt 2007, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 39: 1674-1679, Natural History Museum, London — how we know Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Butt 2011, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 43: 2169-2175 Where Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Natural History Museum, London: A weighty worm, News story Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Abstract only; laboratory culture, with cocoons incubated at 15 °C. Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Lowe & Butt 2007, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 39: 1674-1679 Where Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Natural History Museum, London: A weighty worm, News story Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Abstract only; commercially obtained and field-collected UK adults kept at 15 °C in darkness for one year. Natural History Museum, London Where Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Natural History Museum, London: A weighty worm, News story Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits News story (first published 4 November 2016) about one record specimen identified by museum staff; gives no typical sizes.
Activity pattern	Comes to the surface at night to forage, mate and disperse; emergence peaks in the darkest part of the night, and it is highly sensitive to light. In northern forest soils it typically stayed active through winter, while activity of all earthworms studied decreased substantially in July and August.In boreal summer, bright nights strongly limit surface activity: under natural light, emergence was half that under artificial darkness. The seasonal pattern comes from 7 years of rhizotron records, in which the A. caliginosa complex was more likely than this species to estivate; activity of all earthworms fell when soil was warmest and driest.	Matches source · Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Nuutinen et al. 2014, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 72: 66-74, Europe PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of Cai, Bennie & Gaston 2025, Oecologia 207: 114, USDA Forest Service, Treesearch (record of Potvin & Lilleskov 2017, Biology and Fertility of Soils 53: 187-198), NatureSpot (Leicestershire and Rutland wildlife recording charity) — how we know Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Nuutinen et al. 2014, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 72: 66-74 Where Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC: Abstract, Introduction; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Abstract; NatureSpot: Life History Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Abstract only; a two-week experiment before the summer solstice comparing Finnish, English and Ohio populations. Europe PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of Cai, Bennie & Gaston 2025, Oecologia 207: 114 Where Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC: Abstract, Introduction; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Abstract; NatureSpot: Life History Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Experiments in Cornwall, UK, with commercially supplied adults; the statements used come from its abstract, introduction and methods and cite older work (Darwin 1892; Nuutinen and Butt 1997). USDA Forest Service, Treesearch (record of Potvin & Lilleskov 2017, Biology and Fertility of Soils 53: 187-198) Where Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC: Abstract, Introduction; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Abstract; NatureSpot: Life History Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Abstract only; one rhizotron facility in northern forest soils, location not stated in the abstract. NatureSpot (Leicestershire and Rutland wildlife recording charity) Where Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC: Abstract, Introduction; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Abstract; NatureSpot: Life History Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Unreferenced regional species account for Leicestershire and Rutland, UK (the URL redirects to /species/common-earthworm). Its figures (35 cm, 20 to 40 per square meter, mating up to 4 hours) have no stated sample or method; it is the only source read for the color description.
Social structure	Each midden marks an individual's living site, and individuals are regularly spaced, a pattern attributed to competition for food and space combined with the need to secure mating opportunities. Reuse of burrows by offspring and other individuals has been observed.In managed woodland enclosures, middens were regularly spaced across 1 m² plots, with means of 30.34 and 28.06 per m² in two successive years and a mean inter-midden distance of 0.13 m. A UK account gives 20 to 40 worms per m² in an average garden lawn.	Matches source · Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Nuutinen et al. 2017, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 115: 285-296, Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Grigoropoulou & Butt 2010, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 42: 40-47, Europe PMC record (EThOS) of Grigoropoulou 2009, PhD thesis, NatureSpot (Leicestershire and Rutland wildlife recording charity) — how we know Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Nuutinen et al. 2017, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 115: 285-296 Where Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC record: Abstract; NatureSpot: Life History Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Abstract only; one Finnish arable clay field 17 years after the species was introduced there. Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Grigoropoulou & Butt 2010, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 42: 40-47 Where Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC record: Abstract; NatureSpot: Life History Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Abstract only; one managed woodland (location not given in the abstract), with enclosures over 2 years in which densities were manipulated. Europe PMC record (EThOS) of Grigoropoulou 2009, PhD thesis Where Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC record: Abstract; NatureSpot: Life History Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Thesis abstract only, truncated in the record; combines laboratory and field experiments. NatureSpot (Leicestershire and Rutland wildlife recording charity) Where Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC record: Abstract; NatureSpot: Life History Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Unreferenced regional species account for Leicestershire and Rutland, UK (the URL redirects to /species/common-earthworm). Its figures (35 cm, 20 to 40 per square meter, mating up to 4 hours) have no stated sample or method; it is the only source read for the color description.
Reproduction	Mates on the soil surface at night, head to tail, and can continue 1–3 h after sunrise; sperm passes to the partner's spermathecae, stored to fertilize a cocoon later. Recently mated adults kept alone in culture made 4.53 (birch leaves) or 3.84 (horse manure) cocoons a month.Mating can last up to 4 hours (UK account). In culture at 15 °C, cocoons that hatched within 5 months took a median 103 days, but 35.5% took more than 12 months, and laboratory-reared young matured within 6 months. A review describes earthworms in general as simultaneous hermaphrodites.	Matches source · Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Nuutinen et al. 2014, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 72: 66-74, Europe PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of Cai, Bennie & Gaston 2025, Oecologia 207: 114, NatureSpot (Leicestershire and Rutland wildlife recording charity), Europe PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of Zizzari, Smolders & Koene 2014, Frontiers in Zoology 11: 32, Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Butt 2011, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 43: 2169-2175 — how we know Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Nuutinen et al. 2014, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 72: 66-74 Where Abstract (Nuutinen et al. 2014; Butt 2011) · Materials and methods: Experimental design (Cai et al.) · Life History (NatureSpot) · Sperm transported externally over a groove on the body wall (Zizzari et al.) Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Abstract only; a two-week experiment before the summer solstice comparing Finnish, English and Ohio populations. Europe PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of Cai, Bennie & Gaston 2025, Oecologia 207: 114 Where Abstract (Nuutinen et al. 2014; Butt 2011) · Materials and methods: Experimental design (Cai et al.) · Life History (NatureSpot) · Sperm transported externally over a groove on the body wall (Zizzari et al.) Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Experiments in Cornwall, UK, with commercially supplied adults; the statements used come from its abstract, introduction and methods and cite older work (Darwin 1892; Nuutinen and Butt 1997). NatureSpot (Leicestershire and Rutland wildlife recording charity) Where Abstract (Nuutinen et al. 2014; Butt 2011) · Materials and methods: Experimental design (Cai et al.) · Life History (NatureSpot) · Sperm transported externally over a groove on the body wall (Zizzari et al.) Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Unreferenced regional species account for Leicestershire and Rutland, UK (the URL redirects to /species/common-earthworm). Its figures (35 cm, 20 to 40 per square meter, mating up to 4 hours) have no stated sample or method; it is the only source read for the color description. Europe PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of Zizzari, Smolders & Koene 2014, Frontiers in Zoology 11: 32 Where Abstract (Nuutinen et al. 2014; Butt 2011) · Materials and methods: Experimental design (Cai et al.) · Life History (NatureSpot) · Sperm transported externally over a groove on the body wall (Zizzari et al.) Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Review of male accessory gland products across animals; its simultaneous-hermaphrodite statement refers to earthworms in general. Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Butt 2011, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 43: 2169-2175 Where Abstract (Nuutinen et al. 2014; Butt 2011) · Materials and methods: Experimental design (Cai et al.) · Life History (NatureSpot) · Sperm transported externally over a groove on the body wall (Zizzari et al.) Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Abstract only; laboratory culture, with cocoons incubated at 15 °C.
Movement	Has a sedentary lifestyle and relatively low dispersal rates. It can return to its own burrow by backing along its outward trail, and most burrows were used continuously, moving very little, over 7 years.In a laboratory group of 18 field-collected worms, homing occurred from at most 0.70 m away and, at the longest, after more than 3 h on the surface. In a managed-woodland field experiment, results suggest that dispersal can be affected by population density and resource availability. The burrow record comes from a rhizotron in northern forest soils.	Matches source · Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Nuutinen et al. 2017, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 115: 285-296, Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Field & Michiels 2006, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 38: 1334-1339, USDA Forest Service, Treesearch (record of Potvin & Lilleskov 2017, Biology and Fertility of Soils 53: 187-198), Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Nuutinen & Butt 2005, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 37: 805-807, Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Grigoropoulou & Butt 2010, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 42: 40-47 — how we know Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Nuutinen et al. 2017, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 115: 285-296 Where Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Abstract only; one Finnish arable clay field 17 years after the species was introduced there. Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Field & Michiels 2006, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 38: 1334-1339 Where Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Abstract only; the dispersal statement is background to a parasite study. USDA Forest Service, Treesearch (record of Potvin & Lilleskov 2017, Biology and Fertility of Soils 53: 187-198) Where Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Abstract only; one rhizotron facility in northern forest soils, location not stated in the abstract. Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Nuutinen & Butt 2005, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 37: 805-807 Where Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Abstract only; a laboratory population of 18 field-collected worms observed for 2 months. Europe PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Grigoropoulou & Butt 2010, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 42: 40-47 Where Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Abstract only; one managed woodland (location not given in the abstract), with enclosures over 2 years in which densities were manipulated.
Human interaction	An estimated 500 to 700 million are picked each year for fishing bait from farm fields between Toronto and Windsor, Ontario, supplying a world market for the 'Canadian Nightcrawler'. Introduced to the USA by European settlers in the 1800s; now considered an invasive species.Its spread has been linked to fishing bait: genotypes identical to bait worms were omnipresent in northern North American field populations. Where it invades ecosystems previously devoid of earthworms it has a prominent role in transforming soils and routinely reaches densities capable of consuming the entire annual leaf fall of north temperate deciduous forests. In Upper Michigan it is found close to roads and has yet to establish in most interior forests sampled.	Matches source · FAO AGRIS (record of Steckley 2020, Geoderma 363: 114128), Europe PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of James et al. 2010, PLoS ONE 5(12): e15629, Europe PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of Cope et al. 2021, AoB PLANTS 13: plaa073, Europe PMC abstract record (MEDLINE) of Klein et al. 2017, Applied Soil Ecology 120: 265-272, Europe PMC abstract record (MEDLINE) of Klein, Eisenhauer & Schaefer 2020, Journal of Biogeography 47: 674-685, USDA Forest Service, Treesearch (record of Shartell, Lilleskov & Storer 2013, Biological Invasions 15: 1665-1675) — how we know FAO AGRIS (record of Steckley 2020, Geoderma 363: 114128) Where FAO AGRIS: Abstract; Europe PMC: Introduction; Europe PMC: Introduction; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract: Results, Abstract: Methods; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Abstract Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Abstract only; the harvest figure is an estimate drawn from 59 interviews about southwestern Ontario. Europe PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of James et al. 2010, PLoS ONE 5(12): e15629 Where FAO AGRIS: Abstract; Europe PMC: Introduction; Europe PMC: Introduction; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract: Results, Abstract: Methods; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Abstract Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits DNA-barcoding and taxonomic study of about 200 specimens from Europe and North America; distribution statements cover only the material examined, and its background statements on the bait trade and invasions cite other work. Europe PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of Cope et al. 2021, AoB PLANTS 13: plaa073 Where FAO AGRIS: Abstract; Europe PMC: Introduction; Europe PMC: Introduction; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract: Results, Abstract: Methods; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Abstract Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Experimental study in northeastern Ohio; the range sentence is introductory, cites other work, and covers L. terrestris and garlic mustard together. Europe PMC abstract record (MEDLINE) of Klein et al. 2017, Applied Soil Ecology 120: 265-272 Where FAO AGRIS: Abstract; Europe PMC: Introduction; Europe PMC: Introduction; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract: Results, Abstract: Methods; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Abstract Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Abstract only; a 100 km area south of Calgary; its fishing-bait sentence refers to European earthworm species in general. Europe PMC abstract record (MEDLINE) of Klein, Eisenhauer & Schaefer 2020, Journal of Biogeography 47: 674-685 Where FAO AGRIS: Abstract; Europe PMC: Introduction; Europe PMC: Introduction; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract: Results, Abstract: Methods; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Abstract Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Abstract only; five transects across northern North America. The record's Methods text contains a garbled phrase ('use Conservation approach for goblin species'), which was not quoted. USDA Forest Service, Treesearch (record of Shartell, Lilleskov & Storer 2013, Biological Invasions 15: 1665-1675) Where FAO AGRIS: Abstract; Europe PMC: Introduction; Europe PMC: Introduction; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract; Europe PMC abstract record: Abstract: Results, Abstract: Methods; USDA Forest Service, Treesearch: Abstract Checked by FaunaHub 2026-10-20 Limits Abstract only; Huron Mountains and Seney National Wildlife Refuge, Upper Peninsula of Michigan; presence inferred from middens.

Not stated here, and why

Lifespan— no source accepted yet: No accessible accepted source states a lifespan, wild or in culture. Searched: Animal Diversity Web (no account; 404 page), AnAge (no entry), the Buglife species page and University of Minnesota Extension (HTTP 403 challenges), the Earthworm Society of Britain site (no species account), the NatureSpot and Natural History Museum pages, and Europe PMC abstracts and open full texts on L. terrestris longevity and life history. Butt 2011 followed laboratory adults to 30 months with minimal mortality, and Potvin & Lilleskov expected burrows to outlast a typical lifetime, but neither gives a lifespan figure.

References for the facts above

UniversityNatural History Museum, LondonSupports: body-size (UK record length), weight (UK record mass). Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: News story (first published 4 November 2016) about one record specimen identified by museum staff; gives no typical sizes.
Wildlife referenceNatureSpot (Leicestershire and Rutland wildlife recording charity)Supports: identification (color, tail shape, local names), habitat, diet, body-size (maximum when moving), activity, social-structure (lawn density), reproduction (surface mating). Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Unreferenced regional species account for Leicestershire and Rutland, UK (the URL redirects to /species/common-earthworm). Its figures (35 cm, 20 to 40 per square meter, mating up to 4 hours) have no stated sample or method; it is the only source read for the color description.
GovernmentMissouri Department of ConservationSupports: range (introduced to Missouri from Europe), diet, body-size (common length). Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Field-guide page on earthworms in general; only the sentences in its Food section that name L. terrestris were used. No sample or method is given for the 8-10 inch figure.
ReferenceFAO AGRIS (record of Steckley 2020, Geoderma 363: 114128)Supports: human-interaction (bait harvest and trade), habitat (dairy farm fields). Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Abstract only; the harvest figure is an estimate drawn from 59 interviews about southwestern Ontario.
ReferenceEurope PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of James et al. 2010, PLoS ONE 5(12): e15629Supports: identification (sibling species L. herculeus; type specimen), range (Scandinavian records; post-glacial origin of northern European populations), human-interaction (bait trade, invasive status, leaf-fall consumption). Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: DNA-barcoding and taxonomic study of about 200 specimens from Europe and North America; distribution statements cover only the material examined, and its background statements on the bait trade and invasions cite other work.
ReferenceEurope PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of Blaxter et al. 2023, Wellcome Open Research (Darwin Tree of Life genome note)Supports: identification (largest earthworm of Ireland and Britain); the name common earthworm. Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Genome note with a brief species background; no measurements.
ReferenceEurope PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of Cope et al. 2021, AoB PLANTS 13: plaa073Supports: range (native to Europe; introduced to the USA), diet, human-interaction. Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Experimental study in northeastern Ohio; the range sentence is introductory, cites other work, and covers L. terrestris and garlic mustard together.
ReferenceEurope PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of Cai, Bennie & Gaston 2025, Oecologia 207: 114Supports: activity (night surface activity, light sensitivity), reproduction (copulation after sunrise). Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Experiments in Cornwall, UK, with commercially supplied adults; the statements used come from its abstract, introduction and methods and cite older work (Darwin 1892; Nuutinen and Butt 1997).
ReferenceEurope PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Nuutinen et al. 2014, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 72: 66-74Supports: activity (nocturnal emergence; effect of light), reproduction (surface mating), range (native population in southwestern Finland). Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Abstract only; a two-week experiment before the summer solstice comparing Finnish, English and Ohio populations.
ReferenceEurope PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Nuutinen et al. 2017, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 115: 285-296Supports: social-structure (midden as an individual's living site), movement (sedentary lifestyle). Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Abstract only; one Finnish arable clay field 17 years after the species was introduced there.
ReferenceEurope PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Grigoropoulou & Butt 2010, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 42: 40-47Supports: social-structure (midden spacing and density), movement (density- and resource-dependent dispersal), habitat (woodland). Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Abstract only; one managed woodland (location not given in the abstract), with enclosures over 2 years in which densities were manipulated.
ReferenceEurope PMC record (EThOS) of Grigoropoulou 2009, PhD thesisSupports: social-structure (regular spacing; burrow reuse). Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Thesis abstract only, truncated in the record; combines laboratory and field experiments.
ReferenceEurope PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Nuutinen & Butt 2005, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 37: 805-807Supports: movement (homing to the burrow). Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Abstract only; a laboratory population of 18 field-collected worms observed for 2 months.
ReferenceEurope PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Field & Michiels 2006, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 38: 1334-1339Supports: movement (low dispersal rates). Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Abstract only; the dispersal statement is background to a parasite study.
GovernmentUSDA Forest Service, Treesearch (record of Potvin & Lilleskov 2017, Biology and Fertility of Soils 53: 187-198)Supports: activity (seasonal), movement (burrow use over 7 years), habitat (hardwood and pine stands). Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Abstract only; one rhizotron facility in northern forest soils, location not stated in the abstract.
GovernmentUSDA Forest Service, Treesearch (record of Shartell, Lilleskov & Storer 2013, Biological Invasions 15: 1665-1675)Supports: habitat (soil pH), human-interaction (spread along roads in Upper Michigan). Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Abstract only; Huron Mountains and Seney National Wildlife Refuge, Upper Peninsula of Michigan; presence inferred from middens.
UniversityUniversity of Lancashire repository (Butt & Nuutinen 2024, European Journal of Soil Biology 120: 103595)Supports: habitat (burrow depth; persistence above shallow topsoil). Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Abstract only; one ex-industrial site in NW England where the worms had been introduced.
GovernmentUSDA Climate Hubs (Northern Forests Climate Hub)Supports: habitat (burrow depth). Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Overview of non-native earthworms in the Midwest and eastern United States; only its sentence naming L. terrestris was used.
GovernmentEurope PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of the EFSA PPR Panel 2017 Scientific Opinion on in-soil organisms, EFSA Journal (European Food Safety Authority)Supports: habitat (permanent burrows, surface foraging), diet (plant debris). Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Risk-assessment opinion on soil organisms; species statements are brief. Its dispersal passage (a 19 m night crawl and Table 3 dispersal rates) could not be quoted because the checker's text normalizer drops that stretch of the page, so those figures were not used.
ReferenceEurope PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Velavan et al. 2009, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 41: 1591-1595Supports: habitat (meadow population). Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Abstract only; one large population on a German meadow, in a population-genetics study.
ReferenceEurope PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Butt 2011, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 43: 2169-2175Supports: weight (laboratory-reared adults), reproduction (cocoon output, incubation, maturity). Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Abstract only; laboratory culture, with cocoons incubated at 15 °C.
ReferenceEurope PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Lowe & Butt 2007, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 39: 1674-1679Supports: weight (adults kept in culture). Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Abstract only; commercially obtained and field-collected UK adults kept at 15 °C in darkness for one year.
ReferenceEurope PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of Zizzari, Smolders & Koene 2014, Frontiers in Zoology 11: 32Supports: reproduction (sperm transfer and storage). Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Review of male accessory gland products across animals; its simultaneous-hermaphrodite statement refers to earthworms in general.
ReferenceEurope PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of Zeibich, Guhl & Drake 2020, FEMS MicrobesSupports: diet. Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Gut-microbiology study; the diet statement is introductory and cites older literature.
ReferenceEurope PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of Kirchberger et al. 2015, PLoS ONE (e0123465)Supports: diet (litter preference; damage to live plants). Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Microcosm experiments with seedlings of six plant species over up to 26 days.
ReferenceEurope PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Cassin & Kotanen 2016, Biological Invasions 18: 1567-1580Supports: diet (seed removal). Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Abstract only; the figures come from a microcosm with L. terrestris; its field exclosures covered earthworms in general.
ReferenceEurope PMC abstract record (MEDLINE) of Klein et al. 2017, Applied Soil Ecology 120: 265-272Supports: range (recent establishment in Alberta), human-interaction (bait-mediated spread). Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Abstract only; a 100 km area south of Calgary; its fishing-bait sentence refers to European earthworm species in general.
ReferenceEurope PMC abstract record (MEDLINE) of Klein, Eisenhauer & Schaefer 2020, Journal of Biogeography 47: 674-685Supports: human-interaction (bait genotypes in field populations). Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Abstract only; five transects across northern North America. The record's Methods text contains a garbled phrase ('use Conservation approach for goblin species'), which was not quoted.
ReferenceEurope PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Wackett et al. 2018, Biological Invasions 20: 1377-1386Supports: range (non-native in arctic Fennoscandia). Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Abstract only; exploratory surveys; the statement covers L. terrestris together with L. rubellus and Aporrectodea sp.
ReferenceEurope PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Stroud et al. 2016, Applied Soil Ecology 108: 72-75Supports: habitat (arable fields). Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Abstract only; four arable field trials in SE England; counts are of middens, not worms.

Frequently Asked Questions — Common Earthworm

Why do earthworms come to the surface at night?

The common earthworm comes up at night to forage, mate and disperse. It is highly sensitive to light, and its emergence peaks in the darkest part of the night.

How big do common earthworms get?

A Missouri field guide says they commonly reach 8–10 inches long, and a UK account says the biggest can be up to 35 cm when moving. The UK record worm was longer still, at 40 cm, and weighed 26 g.

Are common earthworms native to North America?

No. The species is native to Europe and was introduced to the United States by European settlers in the 1800s. It is now considered an invasive species, and its spread has been linked to fishing bait.

What do common earthworms eat?

Fallen leaves and other decaying plant material, which they pull into their burrows from the surface, along with soil and the microorganisms in what they eat.

Sources and further reading

Authoritative wildlife references used for general educational context. Conservation status should always be verified against current IUCN Red List data. External links open in a new tab.

ReferenceIntegrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS) — Lumbricus terrestris (common earthworm) — identity (accepted name, authorship, hierarchy; English names nightcrawler and dew worm)
ReferenceGBIF Backbone Taxonomy (GBIF Secretariat) — Lumbricus terrestris (common earthworm) — identity cross-check (accepted name; order Crassiclitellata, class Clitellata)
UniversityNatural History Museum, London — Giant worm takes the UK size record (Natural History Museum) — body-size (UK record length), weight (UK record mass)
Wildlife referenceNatureSpot (Leicestershire and Rutland wildlife recording charity) — Lob worm (NatureSpot, Leicestershire and Rutland) — identification (color, tail shape, local names), habitat, diet, body-size (maximum when moving), activity, social-structure (lawn density), reproduction (surface mating)
GovernmentMissouri Department of Conservation — Earthworms, Missouri field guide — range (introduced to Missouri from Europe), diet, body-size (common length)
ReferenceFAO AGRIS (record of Steckley 2020, Geoderma 363: 114128) — Steckley 2020, Geoderma (AGRIS record) — human-interaction (bait harvest and trade), habitat (dairy farm fields)
ReferenceEurope PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of James et al. 2010, PLoS ONE 5(12): e15629 — James et al. 2010, PLoS ONE (Europe PMC full text) — identification (sibling species L. herculeus; type specimen), range (Scandinavian records; post-glacial origin of northern European populations), human-interaction (bait trade, invasive status, leaf-fall consumption)
ReferenceEurope PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of Blaxter et al. 2023, Wellcome Open Research (Darwin Tree of Life genome note) — Blaxter et al. 2023, Wellcome Open Research (Europe PMC full text) — identification (largest earthworm of Ireland and Britain); the name common earthworm
ReferenceEurope PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of Cope et al. 2021, AoB PLANTS 13: plaa073 — Cope et al. 2021, AoB PLANTS (Europe PMC full text) — range (native to Europe; introduced to the USA), diet, human-interaction
ReferenceEurope PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of Cai, Bennie & Gaston 2025, Oecologia 207: 114 — Cai, Bennie & Gaston 2025, Oecologia (Europe PMC full text) — activity (night surface activity, light sensitivity), reproduction (copulation after sunrise)
ReferenceEurope PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Nuutinen et al. 2014, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 72: 66-74 — Nuutinen et al. 2014, Soil Biology and Biochemistry (Europe PMC record) — activity (nocturnal emergence; effect of light), reproduction (surface mating), range (native population in southwestern Finland)
ReferenceEurope PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Nuutinen et al. 2017, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 115: 285-296 — Nuutinen et al. 2017, Soil Biology and Biochemistry (Europe PMC record) — social-structure (midden as an individual's living site), movement (sedentary lifestyle)
ReferenceEurope PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Grigoropoulou & Butt 2010, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 42: 40-47 — Grigoropoulou & Butt 2010, Soil Biology and Biochemistry (Europe PMC record) — social-structure (midden spacing and density), movement (density- and resource-dependent dispersal), habitat (woodland)
ReferenceEurope PMC record (EThOS) of Grigoropoulou 2009, PhD thesis — Grigoropoulou 2009, PhD thesis (Europe PMC record) — social-structure (regular spacing; burrow reuse)
ReferenceEurope PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Nuutinen & Butt 2005, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 37: 805-807 — Nuutinen & Butt 2005, Soil Biology and Biochemistry (Europe PMC record) — movement (homing to the burrow)
ReferenceEurope PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Field & Michiels 2006, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 38: 1334-1339 — Field & Michiels 2006, Soil Biology and Biochemistry (Europe PMC record) — movement (low dispersal rates)
GovernmentUSDA Forest Service, Treesearch (record of Potvin & Lilleskov 2017, Biology and Fertility of Soils 53: 187-198) — Potvin & Lilleskov 2017, Biology and Fertility of Soils (Treesearch record) — activity (seasonal), movement (burrow use over 7 years), habitat (hardwood and pine stands)
GovernmentUSDA Forest Service, Treesearch (record of Shartell, Lilleskov & Storer 2013, Biological Invasions 15: 1665-1675) — Shartell, Lilleskov & Storer 2013, Biological Invasions (Treesearch record) — habitat (soil pH), human-interaction (spread along roads in Upper Michigan)
UniversityUniversity of Lancashire repository (Butt & Nuutinen 2024, European Journal of Soil Biology 120: 103595) — Butt & Nuutinen 2024, European Journal of Soil Biology (repository record) — habitat (burrow depth; persistence above shallow topsoil)
GovernmentUSDA Climate Hubs (Northern Forests Climate Hub) — Non-native invasive earthworms (USDA Northern Forests Climate Hub) — habitat (burrow depth)
GovernmentEurope PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of the EFSA PPR Panel 2017 Scientific Opinion on in-soil organisms, EFSA Journal (European Food Safety Authority) — EFSA PPR Panel 2017, opinion on in-soil organisms (Europe PMC full text) — habitat (permanent burrows, surface foraging), diet (plant debris)
ReferenceEurope PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Velavan et al. 2009, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 41: 1591-1595 — Velavan et al. 2009, Soil Biology and Biochemistry (Europe PMC record) — habitat (meadow population)
ReferenceEurope PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Butt 2011, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 43: 2169-2175 — Butt 2011, Soil Biology and Biochemistry (Europe PMC record) — weight (laboratory-reared adults), reproduction (cocoon output, incubation, maturity)
ReferenceEurope PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Lowe & Butt 2007, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 39: 1674-1679 — Lowe & Butt 2007, Soil Biology and Biochemistry (Europe PMC record) — weight (adults kept in culture)
ReferenceEurope PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of Zizzari, Smolders & Koene 2014, Frontiers in Zoology 11: 32 — Zizzari, Smolders & Koene 2014, Frontiers in Zoology (Europe PMC full text) — reproduction (sperm transfer and storage)
ReferenceEurope PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of Zeibich, Guhl & Drake 2020, FEMS Microbes — Zeibich, Guhl & Drake 2020, FEMS Microbes (Europe PMC full text) — diet
ReferenceEurope PMC (EMBL-EBI) full text of Kirchberger et al. 2015, PLoS ONE (e0123465) — Kirchberger et al. 2015, PLoS ONE (Europe PMC full text) — diet (litter preference; damage to live plants)
ReferenceEurope PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Cassin & Kotanen 2016, Biological Invasions 18: 1567-1580 — Cassin & Kotanen 2016, Biological Invasions (Europe PMC record) — diet (seed removal)
ReferenceEurope PMC abstract record (MEDLINE) of Klein et al. 2017, Applied Soil Ecology 120: 265-272 — Klein et al. 2017, Applied Soil Ecology (Europe PMC record) — range (recent establishment in Alberta), human-interaction (bait-mediated spread)
ReferenceEurope PMC abstract record (MEDLINE) of Klein, Eisenhauer & Schaefer 2020, Journal of Biogeography 47: 674-685 — Klein, Eisenhauer & Schaefer 2020, Journal of Biogeography (Europe PMC record) — human-interaction (bait genotypes in field populations)
ReferenceEurope PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Wackett et al. 2018, Biological Invasions 20: 1377-1386 — Wackett et al. 2018, Biological Invasions (Europe PMC record) — range (non-native in arctic Fennoscandia)
ReferenceEurope PMC abstract record (Agricola) of Stroud et al. 2016, Applied Soil Ecology 108: 72-75 — Stroud et al. 2016, Applied Soil Ecology (Europe PMC record) — habitat (arable fields)