Common Cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis)
CephalopodMarineMollusk
A common cuttlefish in Arrábida Natural Park, Portugal.
Image: Diego Delso, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons.
Overview
The common cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) is a cephalopod mollusk — a relative of squids and octopuses — of the eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean, and the most northerly-distributed cuttlefish.
It has a broad, flattened body that is oval in cross-section, a fin running along each side of the mantle, eight arms and two longer tentacles tipped with sucker-bearing clubs, and an internal shell, the cuttlebone. Its color is very variable — usually blackish-brown, mottled or striped, paler below — and it can change the color and texture of its skin within seconds, to blend in or to signal to other cuttlefish and to predators.
Maximum mantle lengths are given as 40, 45 or 49 cm, the largest figure for temperate waters, against up to 30 cm in the subtropics; the largest recorded individual had a mantle length of 60 cm. Males grow larger than females.
Habitat & Range
Common cuttlefish live on sandy and muddy seabeds from the shallow subtidal zone out over the continental shelf, preferring moderately warm, shallow coastal water, and their presence in Portuguese waters indicates that they tolerate brackish water; juveniles favor coastal sand and seagrass beds. Accounts differ on depth, with maximums of 200 m, 242 m and 250 m, and below about 200 m the water pressure is enough to implode the cuttlebone.
The range runs from the Shetland Islands and southern Norway, with strays into the Baltic, south through the North Sea, English Channel and Mediterranean and along Africa's Atlantic coast; its southern limit is given as northwestern Africa, South Africa, or on to Mozambique. An older fisheries study reports four geographically separated subspecies across that span, so alike that they are hard to identify.
Diet
The cuttlefish is a carnivore. It eats mainly crabs and other crustaceans, including shrimps, and bottom-living fish, along with mollusks, polychaete and nemertean worms and other cuttlefish; accounts differ on how common cannibalism is. It ambushes prey, often from hiding in the sand, either shooting out its two tentacles — which can reach prey within 15 milliseconds — or pouncing and grabbing with its arms, and its saliva contains a toxin that paralyzes prey.
Behavior
Common cuttlefish are active at night, when adults and young alike hunt; by day most stay hidden in the sand, sometimes sinking in until only their eyes show. During inactive periods they have been seen in a sleep-like state, with color changes, twitching arms and rapid eye movements, lasting on average 135 seconds.
They are usually solitary except when mating and do not form shoals in the wild. Each year they migrate between inshore waters in spring and summer, where they breed, and deeper shelf waters in autumn and winter, a journey that may exceed 100 km, although no seasonal migration has been seen in the Adriatic Sea, where the water rarely falls below 12°C.
Human Interaction & Conservation
The common cuttlefish is one of the most commercially important cephalopods and the most abundant cephalopod resource in the Northeast Atlantic. In recent years it has been reported to be heavily fished in places such as the Mediterranean, and it is usually sold fresh or frozen as a highly valued food, especially in Japan, Korea, Italy and Spain; English Channel landings rose from 430 t in 1992 to 17,400 t in 2014. In the inshore cuttle fishery, eggs laid on cuttle pots risk not staying in the sea long enough to hatch. Cuttlebones are given to pet birds, and the ink has been used in dyes and paint.
IUCN's global assessment lists the common cuttlefish as Least Concern (2012).
Reproduction & Life Cycle
Males court females with displays of colored bands rippling along the body, and fight over and guard their mates; females accept and store sperm from several males and seem to prefer males without zebra banding. Breeding typically happens once, in spring and summer, in shallow inshore water — from February to July in the English Channel — and adults usually die soon after spawning.
Females lay their eggs in batches, dyed black with ink and attached in grape-like clusters to seaweed, seagrass and objects such as fishing pots. Accounts differ widely on how many eggs a female produces (100–1,000, or 150 to 4,000 carried; in the English Channel, females lay on average 200–550), on incubation (30 to 90 days, or 1 to 5 months, depending on water temperature) and on hatchling size (7–8 mm or 50 mm); most describe hatchlings as miniature adults.
Common cuttlefish typically live one to two years — about one year in warmer waters such as the Portuguese coast — although some have been reported to reach three years, and some reared in culture four.
Sourced facts
Each value below is traced to the specific reference that states it. Open a row's evidence to see the source, where to look in it, and how firmly it supports the value. Sources checked 2026-10-20.
| Fact | What the source states | Evidence |
|---|---|---|
| Distinguishing traits | Broad, flattened body, oval in cross-section, with fins along the mantle, eight arms, two longer tentacles with sucker-bearing clubs and an internal cuttlebone. Very variable in color, usually blackish-brown, mottled or striped, paler below; changes color and texture in seconds.A cephalopod related to squids and octopuses; the cuttlebone is oval. Color and texture changes serve camouflage and communication with other cuttlefish or predators. Breeding adults show zebra stripes on the back, and adult males have white and black zebra bands on the fourth arm. Arms carry four rows of suckers, clubs 5-6 rows. The similar Rhombosepion elegans is smaller, with two rows of arm suckers and an acute (not blunt, rounded) front mantle lobe. | Matches source · Animal Diversity Web (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology), Marine Life Information Network (MarLIN), Marine Biological Association of the UK, Naturalis Biodiversity Center (Zooplankton and Micronekton of the North Sea 2.0, identification key), The Wildlife Trusts — how we knowAnimal Diversity Web (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology)
Marine Life Information Network (MarLIN), Marine Biological Association of the UK
Naturalis Biodiversity Center (Zooplankton and Micronekton of the North Sea 2.0, identification key)
The Wildlife Trusts
|
| Geographic range | Native to the eastern Atlantic, including the North Sea and English Channel, and the Mediterranean, from the Shetland Islands and southern Norway south along Africa's Atlantic coast. Sources disagree on the southern limit: northwestern Africa, South Africa, or on to Mozambique.sources disagreeStrays reach the Baltic Sea. Around Britain it is recorded along the south and west coasts of England and Wales, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man, with sporadic records on the east coast and from western to northern Scotland, including the Hebrides; one UK account says it occurs on all UK coasts, more commonly in the south and west. It is called the most northerly-distributed cuttlefish. An older fisheries study reports four geographically separated subspecies across the span from northern Europe to southern Africa, including S. o. hierredda and S. o. vermiculata, which are hard to tell apart. | Sources disagree · Animal Diversity Web (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology), SeaLifeBase, Marine Life Information Network (MarLIN), Marine Biological Association of the UK, Naturalis Biodiversity Center (Zooplankton and Micronekton of the North Sea 2.0, identification key), The Wildlife Trusts, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) — how we knowWhat each reading says
The southern limit differs: northwestern Africa in one database, South Africa in two accounts, and the Cape of Good Hope plus the southeastern coasts of Africa and Mozambique in a museum identification key. Animal Diversity Web (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology)
SeaLifeBase
Marine Life Information Network (MarLIN), Marine Biological Association of the UK
Naturalis Biodiversity Center (Zooplankton and Micronekton of the North Sea 2.0, identification key)
The Wildlife Trusts
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) — fisheries report appendix by H. Hatanaka
|
| Habitat | Bottom-dwelling over sandy and muddy seabeds, from the shallow subtidal zone over the continental shelf, preferring moderately warm, shallow coastal waters; juveniles favor coastal sand and seagrass beds. Usual and maximum depths differ by source.sources disagreeBelow 200 m the water pressure is enough to implode the cuttlebone. It is common inshore during the summer months. Its presence in Portuguese waters indicates tolerance of brackish water. | Sources disagree · Animal Diversity Web (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology), SeaLifeBase, Marine Life Information Network (MarLIN), Marine Biological Association of the UK, Naturalis Biodiversity Center (Zooplankton and Micronekton of the North Sea 2.0, identification key), The Wildlife Trusts — how we knowWhat each reading says
Maximum depth is 200 m in three accounts but 242 m in one database, whose own text also says 200 m, and 250 m in a museum key; usual depth is 0-50 m in that database but typically to 100 m, most commonly at 100 m, in another account. Animal Diversity Web (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology)
SeaLifeBase
Marine Life Information Network (MarLIN), Marine Biological Association of the UK
Naturalis Biodiversity Center (Zooplankton and Micronekton of the North Sea 2.0, identification key)
The Wildlife Trusts
|
| Diet | Carnivore, eating mainly crabs and other crustaceans, including shrimps, and bottom-living fish, plus mollusks, polychaete and nemertean worms, and other cuttlefish. An ambush predator that strikes with its two tentacles or pounces and grabs prey with its arms.sources disagreeIts tentacles can reach prey within 15 milliseconds, and its saliva contains cephalotoxin, which paralyzes prey. It is described as an opportunistic feeder; one account gives brachyuran crabs and demersal fish such as gobies and syngnathids as typical prey, with minor amounts of amphipods. Prey is often ambushed from the sand. | Sources disagree · Animal Diversity Web (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology), SeaLifeBase, Marine Life Information Network (MarLIN), Marine Biological Association of the UK, The Wildlife Trusts — how we knowWhat each reading says
Cannibalism is called common in one database but described as little in another account; two further accounts simply include other cuttlefish among the prey. Animal Diversity Web (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology)
SeaLifeBase
Marine Life Information Network (MarLIN), Marine Biological Association of the UK
The Wildlife Trusts
|
| Body size | Mantle length up to 40, 45 or 49 cm by different accounts, the 49 cm figure for temperate waters; up to 30 cm in the subtropics. Largest recorded: 60 cm mantle length. Males grow larger than females: breeding males measure 8-45 cm and breeding females 12-29 cm mantle length.sources disagreeThe maxima and the record are mantle lengths, and the breeding sizes are dorsal mantle lengths. One account gives 45 cm and 49 cm in the same sentence. In West Saharan fisheries the common size is 15.0 to 25.0 cm (measure not named). | Sources disagree · Animal Diversity Web (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology), SeaLifeBase, Marine Life Information Network (MarLIN), Marine Biological Association of the UK, Naturalis Biodiversity Center (Zooplankton and Micronekton of the North Sea 2.0, identification key), Devon & Severn Inshore Fisheries and Conservation Authority — how we knowWhat each reading says
Maximum mantle length disagrees: 40 cm in a museum identification key, 45 cm in three accounts, and 49 cm for temperate waters in a database and in one account that also gives 45 cm. Animal Diversity Web (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology)
SeaLifeBase
Marine Life Information Network (MarLIN), Marine Biological Association of the UK
Naturalis Biodiversity Center (Zooplankton and Micronekton of the North Sea 2.0, identification key)
Devon & Severn Inshore Fisheries and Conservation Authority
|
| Lifespan | Typically 1-2 years, in the wild and in captivity; one year in warmer waters such as the Portuguese coast. Some individuals have been reported to live to three years, and some cultured individuals reach four years.Adults usually die after breeding. Other figures: a life cycle of 12 to 24 months under natural conditions, 18 to 24 months in an English regional account, and an average of 2 years in a UK account. The three-year report does not say whether the animals were wild or captive. | Matches source · Animal Diversity Web (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology), SeaLifeBase, Marine Life Information Network (MarLIN), Marine Biological Association of the UK, The Wildlife Trusts, Devon & Severn Inshore Fisheries and Conservation Authority — how we knowAnimal Diversity Web (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology)
SeaLifeBase
Marine Life Information Network (MarLIN), Marine Biological Association of the UK
The Wildlife Trusts
Devon & Severn Inshore Fisheries and Conservation Authority
|
| Activity pattern | Nocturnal: active at night, when both adults and young hunt; by day most individuals stay hidden in sand on the seabed, sometimes sinking in so that only the eyes are exposed, to hide from predators.The burying is triggered by light and is seen from hatchlings to adults. A sleep-like state, with color changes, arm twitching and rapid eye movements that could indicate REM sleep, occurs periodically during inactivity and lasts on average 135 seconds. | Matches source · Animal Diversity Web (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology), SeaLifeBase, The Wildlife Trusts, Marine Life Information Network (MarLIN), Marine Biological Association of the UK — how we knowAnimal Diversity Web (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology)
SeaLifeBase
The Wildlife Trusts
Marine Life Information Network (MarLIN), Marine Biological Association of the UK
|
| Social structure | Usually solitary except when mating and does not form shoals in the wild. Males court females with displays of colored bands passing along the body, and fight over and guard their mates; males may have several mates, and females accept and store sperm from several males.Females appear to prefer males without zebra banding rather than dominant males. In culture, cuttlefish tolerate one another unless food is extremely scarce. Courtship displays are seen in spring and summer. | Matches source · Animal Diversity Web (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology), Marine Life Information Network (MarLIN), Marine Biological Association of the UK, The Wildlife Trusts — how we knowAnimal Diversity Web (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology)
Marine Life Information Network (MarLIN), Marine Biological Association of the UK
The Wildlife Trusts
|
| Reproduction | Typically breeds once, in spring and summer, in shallow inshore water; adults usually die soon after spawning. Females lay ink-blackened eggs in batches, as grape-like clusters on seaweed, seagrass and other objects. Egg numbers, incubation and hatchling size differ by source.sources disagreeIn the English Channel spawning runs from February to July in shallow inshore water and hatching peaks in July and August; another summary gives a March to July season. In the English Channel, females lay on average only 200-550 eggs, depending on their size. Eggs are also laid on sessile animals and on structures such as fishing pots. Most accounts describe hatchlings as miniature adults. | Sources disagree · Animal Diversity Web (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology), SeaLifeBase, Marine Life Information Network (MarLIN), Marine Biological Association of the UK, Devon & Severn Inshore Fisheries and Conservation Authority, Naturalis Biodiversity Center (Zooplankton and Micronekton of the North Sea 2.0, identification key) — how we knowWhat each reading says
Sources disagree on how many eggs a female produces (100-1,000 vs 150 to 4000), incubation (30 to 90 days vs 1 to 5 months), hatchling length (7-8 mm vs 50 mm), whether hatchlings pass through a planktonic stage, and age at maturity (14 to 18 vs 13-16 months). Animal Diversity Web (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology)
SeaLifeBase
Marine Life Information Network (MarLIN), Marine Biological Association of the UK
Devon & Severn Inshore Fisheries and Conservation Authority
Naturalis Biodiversity Center (Zooplankton and Micronekton of the North Sea 2.0, identification key)
|
| Movement | Seasonal migrant: spends spring and summer in inshore waters, where it breeds, and moves offshore to deeper shelf waters for autumn and winter. A season's migration may exceed 100 km.Wintering depths are given as 100 m to 200 m, or around 100 m. In the English Channel the winter move offshore is influenced mainly by falling water temperature and also by shorter days; no seasonal migration has been observed in the Adriatic Sea, where temperatures rarely fall below 12°C. | Matches source · Animal Diversity Web (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology), SeaLifeBase, Marine Life Information Network (MarLIN), Marine Biological Association of the UK — how we knowAnimal Diversity Web (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology)
SeaLifeBase
Marine Life Information Network (MarLIN), Marine Biological Association of the UK
|
| Human interaction | Among the most commercially important cephalopods and the most abundant cephalopod resource in the Northeast Atlantic; reported in recent years to be heavily fished in places such as the Mediterranean. Usually sold fresh or frozen as a highly valued food, especially in Japan, Korea, Italy and Spain.English Channel landings rose from 430 t in 1992 to 17,400 t in 2014. In the inshore cuttle fishery, eggs laid on cuttle pots risk not staying in the sea long enough to hatch. Cuttlebones are given to pet birds, the ink has been used in homeopathy, dyes and paint, and it is kept as a pet; it has potential for aquaculture. | Matches source · SeaLifeBase, Marine Life Information Network (MarLIN), Marine Biological Association of the UK, Animal Diversity Web (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology), The Wildlife Trusts, Devon & Severn Inshore Fisheries and Conservation Authority — how we knowSeaLifeBase
Marine Life Information Network (MarLIN), Marine Biological Association of the UK
Animal Diversity Web (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology)
The Wildlife Trusts
Devon & Severn Inshore Fisheries and Conservation Authority
|
| Conservation status | Least Concern (LC), global assessment, 2012 | Matches source · IUCN Red List of Threatened Species — how we knowIUCN Red List of Threatened Species
|
References for the facts above
- UniversityAnimal Diversity Web (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology)Supports: Geographic Range, Habitat, Physical Description, Development, Reproduction, Lifespan/Longevity, Behavior, Food Habits and Economic Importance sections. Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Student-written account (A. Compton and L. Wiley, Rutgers University), last updated 2011-03-20. It gives 45 cm and 49 cm maximum mantle lengths in one sentence, clutch sizes that differ between its text (150-4000) and data panel (100 to 1000), and a hatchling length (50 mm) far above other sources. Its home-range figures were not used because the only telemetry study in its reference list is on Sepia apama.
- ReferenceSeaLifeBaseSupports: Environment, Distribution, Size/Weight, Biology and Life cycle fields: depth, range, mantle length, diet, migration, spawning, eggs, hatchlings, life cycle, fisheries and markets. Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Database summary compiled from cited references (main reference: FAO species identification sheets for the Gulf of Guinea). Its depth range (0-242 m) disagrees with its own text (to 200 m), and its one-line life-cycle note (embryos hatch into a planktonic stage) contradicts the other sources. A cookie banner is shown, but the full content is served in the HTML.
- ReferenceMarine Life Information Network (MarLIN), Marine Biological Association of the UKSupports: Summary, Biology review, Habitat preferences, Life history, Sensitivity review and Importance review: description, identifying features, UK and global distribution, depth, diet, size by sex, lifespan, sociability, fecundity, spawning, migration, fisheries. Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Key Information Review by E. Gibson-Hall and E. Wilson (2018), marked 'not refereed', last updated 06/11/2018; UK focus. Its 60 cm record cites ADW, so it is not independent on that point, and it gives different English Channel fecundity figures in different passages.
- UniversityNaturalis Biodiversity Center (Zooplankton and Micronekton of the North Sea 2.0, identification key)Supports: Description (adult, juvenile), Size, Depth range and World distribution fields. Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Short identification-key entry by a natural-history museum; distribution, depth and size statements carry no references; its world range (to Mozambique) is the widest of all sources.
- Wildlife referenceThe Wildlife TrustsSupports: Statistics, About, How to identify, Distribution and Did you know sections: UK distribution, depth, diet, lifespan, breeding, colour, cuttlebone, burying. Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Popular species page of a UK conservation charity; UK scope only; unreferenced; its length (up to 45cm) does not name the measure.
- GovernmentDevon & Severn Inshore Fisheries and Conservation AuthoritySupports: BIOLOGY and EGG LAYING MEDIA TRIAL sections: mantle length and sexes, life cycle, spawning season and eggs, hatchlings, eggs laid on fishing pots. Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Regional English fisheries authority research page (content last updated 22 February 2023, reviewed 04/12/2024); English Channel focus; its biology text closely follows MarLIN's wording, so it is not fully independent of MarLIN.
- GovernmentFood and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) — fisheries report appendix by H. HatanakaSupports: The span of the species and its reported subspecies, from northern Europe to southern Africa. Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: A 1970s appendix (data to 1975) on cuttlefish off northwestern Africa; its subspecies arrangement is older than current taxonomy.
- ReferenceIUCN Red List of Threatened SpeciesSupports: The global Red List category and the year of the assessment. Retrieved 2026-10-20.Limitations: Read from the Red List export IUCN publishes to GBIF; iucnredlist.org itself does not answer automated reads. Categories are reassessed over time.
Frequently Asked Questions — Common Cuttlefish
How quickly can a cuttlefish change color?
Within seconds. The common cuttlefish can change both the color and the texture of its skin, which it uses to blend in with its surroundings and to communicate with other cuttlefish or predators.
Is a cuttlefish a fish?
No. Despite its name, the cuttlefish is a cephalopod mollusk, related to squids and octopuses, with eight arms, two longer tentacles and an internal shell called the cuttlebone.
How long do common cuttlefish live?
Usually one to two years, and about one year in warmer waters. Adults typically breed once and die soon afterwards, though some have been reported to live to three years, and some reared in culture to four.
What do common cuttlefish eat?
Mainly crabs, shrimps and other crustaceans and bottom-living fish, plus mollusks, worms and other cuttlefish. They ambush prey, shooting out their two tentacles or pouncing with their arms.
Sources and further reading
Authoritative wildlife references used for general educational context. Conservation status should always be verified against current IUCN Red List data. External links open in a new tab.
- UniversityAnimal Diversity Web (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology) — Sepia officinalis (common cuttlefish) species account — Geographic Range, Habitat, Physical Description, Development, Reproduction, Lifespan/Longevity, Behavior, Food Habits and Economic Importance sections
- ReferenceSeaLifeBase — Sepia officinalis species summary — Environment, Distribution, Size/Weight, Biology and Life cycle fields: depth, range, mantle length, diet, migration, spawning, eggs, hatchlings, life cycle, fisheries and markets
- ReferenceMarine Life Information Network (MarLIN), Marine Biological Association of the UK — Common cuttlefish, Marine Life Information Network — Summary, Biology review, Habitat preferences, Life history, Sensitivity review and Importance review: description, identifying features, UK and global distribution, depth, diet, size by sex, lifespan, sociability, fecundity, spawning, migration, fisheries
- UniversityNaturalis Biodiversity Center (Zooplankton and Micronekton of the North Sea 2.0, identification key) — Sepia officinalis, Zooplankton and Micronekton of the North Sea — Description (adult, juvenile), Size, Depth range and World distribution fields
- Wildlife referenceThe Wildlife Trusts — Common cuttlefish, Wildlife Explorer (UK) — Statistics, About, How to identify, Distribution and Did you know sections: UK distribution, depth, diet, lifespan, breeding, colour, cuttlebone, burying
- GovernmentDevon & Severn Inshore Fisheries and Conservation Authority — Cuttlefish research (English Channel) — BIOLOGY and EGG LAYING MEDIA TRIAL sections: mantle length and sexes, life cycle, spawning season and eggs, hatchlings, eggs laid on fishing pots
- GovernmentFood and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) — fisheries report appendix by H. Hatanaka — Two subspecies of Sepia officinalis off northwestern Africa — The span of the species and its reported subspecies, from northern Europe to southern Africa
- ReferenceIUCN Red List — Sepia officinalis assessment — The global Red List category and the year of the assessment